Political Science Essay Example for Free

Political Science Essay Non-governmental organizations and Inter-governmental organization are defined as actors in the international level which operate and they carry out their activities without any state control. Non-governmental organizations are formed voluntarily by citizens, with the aim of charitable participation within the organization. They are independent within the laws of society and are managed by those elected or the appointed board. Its legal status is based on freedom of association, one of the most basic human rights. This paper will focus on various aspects of these two kinds of organizations and their effects on the international relations of a state. NGOs are not established with the purpose of making profit rather they are engaged in revenue-generating activities. The revenue obtained is used in pursuit of the organization’s mission. Employees get the proper reward for relevant work done. Nevertheless, boards are not paid for the work they do but are reimbursed for any expense they incur in executing board duties. In addition, NGOs aims at improving the circumstances and prospects of people and to act on issues detrimental to the well being of the society as a whole (Ahmed Potter, 2008). There exists great diversification in terms of independence, size of business, source of funding, international reach and operating procedures. These organizations can execute projects, shield or promote specific causes and seek to manipulate policy. NGOs are not subject to international law and include organizations like Amnesty international, the International chamber of Commerce and International Red Cross. IGOs  Intergovernmental organizations, commonly abbreviated as IGOs, comprise of sovereign states that are positioned to carry out projects and plans in common interest. NGOs act in conjunction with IGOs by complimenting IGO- initiated and funded programmes, as operational partners. IGOs include organizations like the European Union and the international financial institutions, World Bank. Most of IGOs work for and are financed by rich corporations and some state governments (Beigbeder, 1991). They are important aspect of public international law and are formed by treaty that acts as a bond creating the group. IGOs plays a major role by providing means of cooperation and multiple channels of communication between and among states in fields which cooperation and communication provides advantages for almost all nations. With the major roles of IGOs as rule making, data collection and agenda setting, they decrease uncertainty between states and explore cooperative solution for international problems. IGOs may manipulate norms of international relations and preferences of nation-states; for instance, the United Nations Environment Program which played key role in the conception of regimes such as the protection of the Mediterranean Sea. A well known case is the International Atomic Energy Agency which evidenced that IGOs play a significant role in monitoring principles, norms and rules of international institutions and international regimes. Infrastructure has developed within states as IGOs are greatly concerned with technical issues like telecommunication, postal services, transportation and environmental management. Economic development has been witnessed with IMF and the World Bank being successful in money flowing, debt management and financing debt issues between rich and poor states. States are able to obtain information about the international society and politics. Decisions made by IGOs are as a result of negotiations among the governmental agents assigned to them. Activities of IGOs such as the UN and the IMF are seen to be more influential for most diminutive countries as compared with countries with very big powers as they are not constrained too much by their principles. NGOs exists in many kinds such as transnational, governmental organized, governmental regulated and initiated, business and industry, transnational social movements and anti-governmental. For the recent decade their effectiveness for transnational politics has become pertinent and their number increased. NGOs mobilize universal networks by creating transnational organizations, gathering data on local conditions through associates around the world, creating immediate response and drum up pressure from the outside states. NGOs work hand in hand with IGOs by participating in their conferences and engaging in social appointments, building communal coalitions, raising new agendas and addressing IGOs meetings (Beigbeder, 1991). They also maintain inter-state collaboration by preparing backing papers, reports and refining delegates of states to narrow technical gap, intensifying policy options and bringing delegates together. They carry out activities within states such as linking to local partners and transnational movements, providing humanitarian aid protecting persons in danger. NGOs promote public participation within states by bringing awareness to the government delegates that they are being watched. This is achieved through the endless effort in increasing transparency and honesty of international negotiations and public institutions and aggravating public protest. They do mobilization of international community to fight against oppression, afflict, group and personal rights. Effects of NGOs and NGOs on international relations of a state Non-state actors have caused great transformation in international relations as they have become the major determinants of foreign policies of nation states as they have remained active in playing their major roles in more than one state. They are involved in both domestic and international settings. Through their personal connection with their employees, they help nation states to solve problems such as climatological changes, shortage of food, poverty, and insufficient natural resources. In many cases of political conflicts like the cold war which resulted to tribalism and other cultural cleavages, many non-state actors have been involved to solve them and shape national, regional and international policies and thus their role has been widely accepted by many political scientists. However, these scientists only differed on the level of relevance and effectiveness of non-state actors. Intergovernmental organizations and Non-governmental organizations are included in the part of world system and are source of effectiveness in international politics. In today’s world, it has become quite difficult to evaluate international politics and pattern without attaching the great influence of non-state actors which are gaining position. Moreover, non-state actors have shown concern with the rural poor and have managed to maintain field presence in distant locations where it quite difficult to keep government staff in station. They have identified the needs of the rural poor in terms of agricultural developments. They have also implemented new systems for testing new technology such as soya production in Bangladesh (Ahmed Potter, 2008). In other cases, non-state actors have assisted to organize landless labourers to get and operate water pumping technology and irrigation schemes. Concisely, they have sustained joint efforts in soil and water conservation whether is on private land or on micro-watershed areas. Conclusion  In conclusion, increased transactions, awareness and common concern on regional and global problems require collaboration between states and non-state actors so as to maintain their welfare. These organizations will also require further cooperation and communication among themselves to strengthen their effectiveness as actors in the implementation of sustainable achievement. Nation-states including the most powerful one, the United States, have to attach great significance to non-state actors in order to improve and achieve their main interests.

Heart of Darkness - How Do We Encounter Ourselves in the Modern Society

While I was reading the short story â€Å"Heart of Darkness,† by Joseph Conrad, I recalled an essay I read back in Korea, titled â€Å"Why Do We Read Novels.† The writer of the essay states that the most common reason why we, as people, read novels is that it makes us ask ourselves how the justice or injustice of the real world relates to that of the author’s words. In this way, the short story â€Å"Heart of Darkness† portrays the experiences and thoughts of Conrad through the tale of two important characters, Marlow and Mr. Kurtz. His work forces the reader to ponder questions of the morality, humanity, and insanity which takes place in our human lives. The story is a record of Marlow’s journey to meeting Mr. Kurtz, a morally corrupted being who is a symbolic representation of the darkness and wilderness of the African jungle. It is necessary to pay close attention to the process of Marlow’s journey and meeting with Mr. Kurtz in order to understand the meaning of what he learned from discovering himself and how this relates to our modern world. Unlike other white men who went into the Congo River for unmoral or materialistic reasons, such as to Christianize the natives or to get rich by exploiting all the ivories in the jungle, Marlow does not feel right about how the Imperialistic European countries exploit of the rest of the world. This is shown very clearly when Marlow says â€Å"This devoted band called itself the Eldorado Exploring Expedition, and I believe they were sworn to secrecy. Their talk, however, was the talk of sordid buccaneers: it was reckless without hardihood, greedy without audacity, and cruel without courage, there was not an atom of fore-sight or of serious intention in the whole batch of them, and they did not seem aware ... ... jungles of the Congo or on the civilized streets of London. I feel strongly that one of the reasons why Conrad wrote this novella is to encourage us to ask ourselves about how we encounter ourselves in the contemporary society. He must have felt that people during his time indulged in imperialism, which prevented them from reflecting on themselves. Consequently, there are many evidences in the text that show his cynical view of imperialism. For example, Marlow describes the French army’s firing into a continent as â€Å"a feeble screech† (P.275), implying the author’s pessimistic view towards imperialism. In this way, the people in the modern society indulge in modern things that prevent us from reflecting on ourselves, such as mass media, the internet, etc. Conrad once said â€Å"Facing it, always facing it, that's the way to get through. Face it.† Are we facing ourselves?

A Response on Social Inequality

? A Response on Social Inequality We live in a culturally diverse world. Age, gender, sexual orientation, ethnic heritage and race are some of the diverse areas in society that are deemed significant. In spite of all these differences we tend to center ourselves around people who are similar to us; those who share the same biological and physical characteristics, same status and similar lifestyles. Because of this it is our human nature to be ethnocentric towards those who are different from us. This gives rise to discrimination which ultimately leads to social inequality. There are many areas in which people discriminate others. One of the most prominent ones is race; since it is easy to identify. Race is related to the distinct biological characteristics of  a person; skin color, hair color, eye shape, height ect. We can easily differentiate an African American from a white American. Another similar area to race is the ethnicity of a person. Ethnicity is the fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition. For example some commonly recognized American ethnic groups include American Indians, Latinos, Chinese, African Americans, European Americans, etc. Discrimination and social inequality on the base of race and ethnicity go hand in hand and is seen all over the world. In the article â€Å"office work and the crack alternative† Philippe Bourgois shows how a group Puerto Rican immigrants in New Harlem face discrimination because of their race. They are deprived of jobs at work places and are stereotyped as lazy and good for nothing. Sex and gender is also another area where social inequality occurs. Gender is the state of being male or female etc. and sex is the category into which humans are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions. We see social inequality on sex and gender in almost all work places where the male usually gets better jobs and a better pay than females and we also see this social inequality in families where the male is the head of the family and holds an authoritative figure. This is mostly due to gender stereotypes. Some common gender stereotypes are that men are stronger, tougher, braver, and more intelligent thus he is given the authoritative role. Women on the other hand are stereotyped as more emotional, sensitive and soft spoken, and nurturing thus she is in charge of taking care of the household duties such as cooking, cleaning, raising the children. In Asian countries it is common to see the male as the â€Å"higher† gender while the woman is seen as lower than them. Caste and class is another area where you see social inequality based on discrimination. Caste is an economic categorization describing the status you are born into. Caste is an ascribed status; you have to stay in your caste from birth on, and it helps determine your job, place and value in society etc. Class is based on economic status; usually upon the income made. While people tend to stay in the class they are brought up in, it is possible to move up or down the class scale therefore it is an achieved status unlike in caste. These categorizations may reflect the attitudes of the people because it shows the importance people place on power and wealth in a society. In India the high castes are the Brahmins’. They inherit exclusive privileges from birth and are socially distinct while lower castes are deprived of their basic rights and are usually discriminated by the higher castes. In our present society we can see that people give more respect to those who are at a higher class than themselves; especially based on how much they earn. Social Inequality is seen in other areas of society too but it is more prevalent within the areas of race and ethnicity, sex and gender, and class and caste. Social inequality can only end if we become less ethnocentric towards those who are different from us and if we accept the social diversity in our world.

Banning Sale Of Cigarette And Smoking - 1778 Words

Banning Sale of Cigarette and Smoking The debate on whether to ban cigarette selling and smoking attracts many opposing and supporting views. The proponents of the ban cite the health and financial reasons to support the abolition of public smoking and cigarette sale. The smokers risk contracting dangerous diseases such as cancer, bronchitis, pneumonia, and cardiovascular diseases. Management of such diseases requires many funds that can constrain the individual smoker and the public health. In contrast, the opponents argue that cigarette selling is a source of revenues and creates employment. The critics hold tobacco companies employ many people, and the banning of cigarette sale and smoking will lead to loss of jobs. The tobacco products†¦show more content†¦Notably, smoking in public affects the health be people regardless of age. Health reports confirm that children exposed to smoking manifest increased risk of middle ear disease, asthma, lower respiratory infections, bacterial meningitis, and wheezes. Other health complications in children exposed to smoking include neurobiological and cardiovascular damages. Ash reveals, â€Å"in 2009 a study in American Pediatrics Journal reported that passive smoking aggravated many chronic diseases such as sickle cell anemia† (Ash 2-5). Similarly, a Canadian study on passive smoking revealed that smoking substantially decreased the ability of children to smell. Therefore, it is important to ban the cigarette sale and smoking to have a healthier nation. Smoking increases the rates of asthma and affects the mental development in children. A study in the United States on children reported, â€Å"exposure of children to smoking affect the reasoning and reading skills of the children† (Ash 4). Similarly, children born in a smoking environment start wheezing and experience chest problems. A study by a researcher in the United Kingdom said, â€Å"Children born and living with smoking parents showed a high prevalence of developing asthmatic attack† (Proctor 28). In adults, â€Å"Smoking increases the risk of developing lung diseases and cancer. In effect, the smoke from cigarettes contains harmful contents such as carbon dioxide, benzene, and